Victoria England Queen Victoria (1819-1901), Königin und Kaiserin
Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa, Prinzessin von Großbritannien und Irland VA, ab Kaiserin Friedrich, war als erstes Kind von Albert von Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha und Königin Victoria von Großbritannien eine britische Prinzessin aus dem Hause. Victoria – gebürtig Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent – (* Mai im Kensington Palace, London; † Januar in Osborne House, Isle of Wight). Prinz Friedrich Wilhelm, der insgesamt vier Wochen in England verbrachte, war zudem von der Umgangsweise innerhalb der britischen Königsfamilie angetan. wurde Alexandrina Victoria, Tochter von Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, und Victoria von Sachsen-Coburg-Saalfeld, zur Königin des. Ihre Ehe gilt als vorbildlich und glücklich. Krönung von Victoria I., Königin von England. wird Viktoria als Jährige zur britischen Königin gekrönt. Besuch bezeichnet Victoria Coburg und Schloss Rosenau als ihre zweite Heimat. Hier würde sie am liebsten leben, wäre sie nicht Königin von England. Victoria, Königin von Großbritannien und Irland, Kaiserin von Indien, da dort im Gegensatz zu England die weibliche Thronfolge ausgeschlossen ist.
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Queen Victoria's Empire Victoria wurde unmittelbar nach der Hochzeit schwanger und am Victoria nutzte ihre Victoria England Stellung, um sich dem dominierenden Einfluss ihrer Mutter und vor allem John Conroys zu entledigen. Gladstone löste die anglikanische Staatskirche in Irland auf, verbesserte die Stellung der irischen Pächter Land Act und sah vor allem die irische Martin Dannecker Home Rule als unvermeidbar an. Die zunehmende Nachfrage nach Unterhaltungslektüre fördert die Entstehung von historischen Romanen Fieser FettsackSchauerromanen " Dracula "Detektivgeschichten " The Dressmaker Streaming Holmes Tvd Damon und manchmal sogar sozialkritischen Büchern "Oliver Chicago Fire Staffel 5 Stream Deutsch. Lebensmonat wurde Victoria von Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha in Französisch und noch vor Vollendung ihres vierten Lebensjahres auch in Deutsch unterrichtet. Ihre Kleinwüchsigkeit blieb das nagende Ärgernis ihres Lebens, ihre Korpulenz war voll ausgereift, ihr Gesicht schwammig, ihr Blick ins Fotoobjektiv von gleich bleibender Missgelauntheit. Ihre Enkel Nikolaus II. Indeed, the commercial value of new science had already become apparent by this time; some businessmen were quite willing to offer generous financial support for researchers.
Rankine spoke confidently of the new science of thermodynamics , a term Kelvin coined in , whose fundamental principles came to be known as the First and Second Laws and whose core concepts were "energy" and "entropy.
Here, Kelvin and Tait introduced the phrase kinetic energy instead of 'actual' , now in standard usage. The phrase potential energy was promoted by Rankine.
On the practical side, the food-preserving effect of low temperatures had long been recognised. Natural ice was vigourously traded in the early nineteenth century, but it was inevitably in short supply, especially in Australia.
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, there was considerable commercial incentive to develop ever more effective refrigerators thanks to the expansion of agriculture in the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand and rapid urbanization in Western Europe.
From the s onward, refrigerators relied on the expansion of compressed air or the evaporation of a volatile liquid; evaporation became the basis of all modern refrigerator designs.
Long-distance shipping of perishable foods, such as meat, boomed in the late s. On the theoretical side, new refrigeration techniques were also of great value.
Scientists began trying to reach ever lower temperatures and to liquefy every gas they encountered.
This paved the way for the development of low-temperature physics and the Third Law of Thermodynamics. This study of natural history was most powerfully advanced by Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution first published in his book On the Origin of Species in Research in geology and evolutionary biology naturally led to the question of how old the Earth was.
Indeed, between the mids to the mids, this was the topic of increasingly sophisticated intellectual discussions.
With the advent of thermodynamics, it became clear that the Earth and the Sun must have an old but finite age. Whatever the energy source of the Sun, it must be finite, and since it is constantly dissipating, there must be a day when the Sun runs out of energy.
Lord Kelvin wrote in , " He reached comparable figures for the Earth. The missing ingredient here was radioactivity, which was not known to science till the end of the nineteenth century.
After the Dane Hans Christian Orsted demonstrated that it was possible to deflect a magnetic needle by closing or opening an electric circuit nearby, a deluge of papers attempting explain the phenomenon was published.
Michael Faraday set himself to the task of clarifying the nature of electricity and magnetism by experiments. In doing so, he devised what could be described as the first electric motor though it does not resemble a modern one , a transformer now used to step up the voltage and step down the current or vice versa , and a dynamo which contains the basics of all electric turbine generators.
A dynamo converts mechanical energy into an electrical current whilst a motor does the reverse. The world's first power plants entered service in , and by the following year, people realized the possibility of using electricity to power a variety of household appliances.
Inventors and engineers soon raced to develop such items, starting with affordable and durable incandescent light bulbs, perhaps the most important of the early applications of electricity.
As the foremost expert on electricity and magnetism at the time, Lord Kelvin oversaw the laying of the trans-Atlantic telegraphic cable, which became successful in In other words, light is but one kind of electromagnetic wave.
Maxwell's theory predicted there ought to be other types, with different frequencies. After some ingenious experiments, Maxwell's prediction was confirmed by German physicist Heinrich Hertz.
In the process, Hertz generated and detected what are now called radio waves and built crude radio antennas and the predecessors of satellite dishes.
He also showed that Maxwell's theory succeeded in illuminating the phenomenon of light dispersion where other models failed. John William Strutt Lord Rayleigh and the American Josiah Willard Gibbs then proved that the optical equations derived from Maxwell's theory are the only self-consistent description of the reflection, refraction, and dispersion of light consistent with experimental results.
Optics thus found a new foundation in electromagnetism. But it was Oliver Heaviside , an enthusiastic supporter of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, who deserves most of the credit for shaping how people understood and applied Maxwell's work for decades to come.
Heaviside rewrote them in the form commonly used today, just four expressions. In addition, Heaviside was responsible for considerable progress in electrical telegraphy, telephony, and the study of the propagation of electromagnetic waves.
Independent of Gibbs, Heaviside assembled a set of mathematical tools known as vector calculus to replace the quaternions , which were in vogue at the time but which Heaviside dismissed as "antiphysical and unnatural.
Faraday also investigated how electrical currents affected chemical solutions. His experiments led him to the two laws of electrochemistry.
Together with Whewell, Faraday introduced the basic vocabulary for the subject, the words electrode , anode , cathode , electrolysis , electrolyte , ion , anion , and cation.
They remain in standard usage. But Faraday's work was of value to more then just chemists. In his Faraday Memorial Lecture in , the German Hermann von Helmholtz asserted that Faraday's laws of electrochemistry hinted at the atomic structure of matter.
If the chemical elements were distinguishable from one another by simple ratios of mass, and if the same amounts of electricity deposited amounts of these elements upon the poles in ratios, then electricity must also come in as discrete units, later named electrons.
In the late nineteenth century, the nature of the energy emitted by the discharge between high-voltage electrodes inside an evacuated tube— cathode rays —attracted the attention of many physicists.
While the Germans thought cathode rays were waves, the British and the French believed they were particles.
Working at the Cavendish Laboratory , established by Maxwell, J. Thompson directed a dedicate experiment demonstrating that cathode rays were in fact negatively charged particles, now called electrons.
In addition, because the ratio was the same regardless of the metal used, Thompson concluded that electrons must be a constituent of all atoms.
Although the atoms of each chemical elements have different numbers of electrons, all electrons are identical.
Inspired by the explorations in abstract algebra of George Peacock and Augustus de Morgan , George Boole published a book titled An Investigation of the Laws of Thought , in which he brought the study of logic from philosophy and metaphysics to mathematics.
His stated goal was to "investigate the fundamental laws of those operations of the mind by which reasoning is performed; to give expression to them in the symbolical language of a Calculus, and upon this foundation to establish the science of logical and construct its methods.
The desire to construct calculating machines is not new. In fact, it can be traced all the way back to the Hellenistic Civilization.
While people have devised such machines over the centuries, mathematicians continued to perform calculations by hand, as machines offered little advantage in speed.
For complicated calculations, they employed tables, especially of logarithmic and trigonometric functions, which were computed by hand.
But right in the middle of the Industrial Revolution in England, Charles Babbage thought of using the all-important steam engine to power a mechanical computer, the Difference Engine.
Unfortunately, whilst Babbage managed to secure government funds for the construction of the machine, the government subsequently lost and interest and Babbage faced considerable troubles developing the necessary machine components.
He abandoned the project to pursue a new one, his Analytical Engine. By , he had worked out the basic design.
Like a modern computer, it consisted of two basic parts, one that stores the numbers to be processed the store , and one that performed the operations the mill.
Babbage adopted the concept of punch cards from the French engineer Joseph Jacquard, who had used it to automate the textile industry in France, to control the operations of his Analytical Engine.
Unfortunately, he again lacked the financial resources to build it, and so it remained a theoretical construct. But he did leave behind detailed notes and engineering drawings, from which modern experts conclude that the technology of the time was advanced enough to actually build it, even if he never had enough money to do so.
In , Babbage went to Turin to gave lectures on his work designing the Analytical Engine to Italian scientists.
Ada Lovelace translated the notes published by one of the attendees into English and heavily annotated it.
She wrote down the very first computer program, in her case one for computing the Bernoulli numbers. She employed what modern computer programmers would recognise as loops and decision steps, and gave a detailed diagram, possibly the first flowchart ever created.
She noted that a calculating machine could perform not just arithmetic operations but also symbolic manipulations.
On the limitations and implications of the computer, she wrote, []. It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform.
It can follow analysis; but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths. Its province is to assist us in making available what we are already acquainted with But it is likely to exert an indirect and reciprocal influence on science itself in another manner.
For, in so distributing and combining the truths and the formulas of analysis, that they may become most easily and rapidly amendable to the mechanical combinations of the engine, the relations and the nature of many subjects in that science are necessarily thrown into new lights, and more profoundly investigated It is however pretty evident, on general principles, that in devising for mathematical truths a new form in which to record and throw themselves out for actual use, views are likely to be induced, which should again react on the more theoretical phase of the subject.
Steam ships were one of the keys to Britain's prosperity in the nineteenth century. This technology, which predates the Victorian era, had a long a rich history.
Starting in the late s, people had begun building steam-powered ships with ever increasing size, operational range, and speed, first to cross the English Channel and then the Atlantic and finally to reach places as far away as India and Australia without having to refuel mid-route.
International trade and travel boosted demand, and there was intense competition among the shipping companies. At feet long, feet wide and weighing over 18, tons, the SS Great Eastern was the largest ship built at the time, capable of transporting 4, passengers from Britain to Australia without having to refuel along the way.
Even when she was finally broken up for scraps in , she was still the largest ship in the world. Her record was not broken till the Edwardian era with super liners like the Lusitania in , the Titanic in Yet despite being a remarkable feat of engineering, the Great Eastern became more and more of a white elephant as smaller and faster ships were in greater demand.
Nevertheless, she gained a new lease of life when she was chartered to lay telegraphic cables across the Atlantic, and then to India.
Her size and range made her ideally suited for the task. The British government had long realised that national prosperity depended on trade. For that reason, it deployed the Royal Navy to protect maritime trade routes and financed the construction of many steam ships.
Although the idea of transmitting messages via electrical signals dated back to the eighteenth century, it was not until the s that advances in the study of electricity and magnetism made that a practical reality.
In , William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone invented a telegraphic system that used electrical currents to deflect magnetic needles, thus transmitting coded messages.
This design soon made its way all across Britain, appearing in every town and post office. In , the SS Great Eastern successfully laid the transatlantic telegraphic cable.
A global network boomed towards the end of the century. In , Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone. Like the telegraph, the telephone enabled rapid personal communication.
A little over a decade later, 26, telephones were in service in Britain and , in America had telephones. Multiple switchboards were installed in every major town and city.
Hertz's experimental work in electromagnetism stimulated interest in the possibility of wireless communication, which did not require long and expensive cables and was faster than even the telegraph.
Receiving little support in his native Italy, Guglielmo Marconi moved to England and adapted Hertz's equipment for this purpose in the s. He achieved the first international wireless transmission between England and France in and by the following year, he succeeded in sending messages in Morse code across the Atlantic.
Seeing its value, the shipping industry adopted this technology at once. Radio broadcasting became extremely popular in the twentieth century and remains in common use in the early twenty-first.
By , hand-held cameras were available. Another important innovation in communications was the Penny Black , the first postage stamp, which standardised postage to a flat price regardless of distance sent.
A central development during the Victorian era was the rise of rail transport. The new railways all allowed goods, raw materials, and people to be moved about, rapidly facilitating trade and industry.
The financing of railways became an important specialty of London's financiers. Railroads originated in England because industrialists had already discovered the need for inexpensive transportation to haul coal for the new steam engines, to supply parts to specialized factories, and to take products to market.
The existing system of canals was inexpensive but was too slow and too limited in geography. The engineers and businessmen needed to create and finance a railway system were available; they knew how to invent, to build, and to finance a large complex system.
The first quarter of the 19th century involved numerous experiments with locomotives and rail technology. By railways were commercially feasible, as demonstrated by George Stephenson — when he built the Stockton and Darlington.
On his first run, his locomotive pulled 38 freight and passenger cars at speeds as high as 12 miles per hour. They invented and improved thousands of mechanical devices, and developed the science of civil engineering to build roadways, tunnels and bridges.
The canal companies, unable or unwilling to upgrade their facilities to compete with railways, used political power to try to stop them.
The railways responded by purchasing about a fourth of the canal system, in part to get the right of way, and in part to buy off critics.
Once a charter was obtained, there was little government regulation, as laissez-faire and private ownership had become accepted practices.
The different lines typically had exclusive territory, but given the compact size of Britain, this meant that multiple competing lines could provide service between major cities.
George Hudson — became the "railway king" of Britain. He merged various independent lines and set up a "Clearing House" in which rationalized interconnections by establishing uniform paperwork and standard methods for transferring passengers and freight between lines, and rates when one system used freight cars owned by another.
By , rates had fallen to a penny a ton mile for coal, at speeds of up to fifty miles an hour. Britain now had had the model for the world in a well integrated, well-engineered system that allowed fast, cheap movement of freight and people, and which could be replicated in other major nations.
The railways directly or indirectly employed tens of thousands of engineers, mechanics, repairmen and technicians, as well as statisticians and financial planners.
They developed new and more efficient and less expensive techniques. Most important, they created a mindset of how technology could be used in many different forms of business.
Railways had a major impact on industrialization. By lowering transportation costs, they reduced costs for all industries moving supplies and finished goods, and they increased demand for the production of all the inputs needed for the railroad system itself.
By , there were 13, locomotives which each carried 97, passengers a year, or 31, tons of freight. India provides an example of the London-based financiers pouring money and expertise into a very well built system designed for military reasons after the Mutiny of , and with the hope that it would stimulate industry.
The system was overbuilt and much too elaborate and expensive for the small amount of freight traffic it carried. However, it did capture the imagination of the Indians, who saw their railways as the symbol of an industrial modernity—but one that was not realized until a century or so later.
A gas network for lighting and heating was introduced in the s. Although initially developed in the early years of the 19th century, gas lighting became widespread during the Victorian era in industry, homes, public buildings and the streets.
The invention of the incandescent gas mantle in the s greatly improved light output and ensured its survival as late as the s.
Hundreds of gasworks were constructed in cities and towns across the country. In , incandescent electric lights were introduced to London streets, although it took many years before they were installed everywhere.
Medicine progressed during Queen Victoria's reign. In fact, medicine at the start of the nineteenth century was little different from that in the medieval era whereas by the end of the century, it became a lot closer to twenty-first century practice thanks to advances in science, especially microbiology, paving the way for the germ theory of disease.
This was during the height of the Industrial Revolution, and urbanisation occurred at a frantic pace. As the population density of the cities grew, epidemics of cholera, smallpox , tuberculosis , and typhus were commonplace.
After studying previous outbreaks, physician John Snow drew the conclusion that cholera was a water-borne disease. When the broke out, Snow mapped the locations of the cases in Soho, London, and found that they centered around a well he deemed contaminated.
He asked that the pump's handle be replaced, after which the epidemic petered out. Snow also discovered that households whose water supplies came from companies that used the Thames downstream, after many sewers had flown into the river, were fourteen times more likely to die from cholera.
He thus recommended boiling water before use. Sanitation reforms, prompted by the Public Health Acts and , were made in the crowded, dirty streets of the existing cities, and soap was the main product shown in the relatively new phenomenon of advertising.
A great engineering feat in the Victorian Era was the sewage system in London. It was designed by Joseph Bazalgette in Many problems were encountered but the sewers were completed.
After this, Bazalgette designed the Thames Embankment which housed sewers, water pipes and the London Underground. During the same period, London's water supply network was expanded and improved.
John Simon , as chief medical officer of the General Board of Health, secured funds for research into various common infectious diseases at the time, including cholera, diphtheria , smallpox, and typhus.
Using his political influence, he garnered support for the Public Health Act of , which focused on preventative measures in housing, the water supply, sewage and drainage, providing Britain with an extensive public health system.
By mid-century, the stethoscope became an oft-used device and designs of the microscope had advanced enough for scientists to closely examine pathogens.
The pioneering work of French microbiologist Louis Pasteur from the s earned widespread acceptance for the germ theory of disease.
As the British Empire expanded, Britons found themselves facing novel climates and contagions; there was active research into tropical diseases.
In , Ronald Ross proved that the mosquito was responsible for spreading malaria. Although nitrous oxide , or laughing gas, had been proposed as an anaesthetic as far back as by Humphry Davy , it was not until when an American dentist named William Morton started using ether on his patients that anaesthetics became common in the medical profession.
Anaesthetics made painless dentistry possible. At the same time sugar consumption in the British diet increased, greatly increasing instances of tooth decay.
This gave rise to "Waterloo Teeth", which were real human teeth set into hand-carved pieces of ivory from hippopotamus or walrus jaws.
News of the discovery of X-rays in spread like wildfire. Its medical value was realised immediately, and within a year, doctors were prescribing X-rays for diagnosis, in particular to locate bone fractures and foreign objects inside the patient's body.
Radioactivity was discovered , and was later to used to treat cancer. During the second half of the nineteenth century, British medical doctors became increasingly specialised, following the footsteps of their German counterparts, and more hospitals were built.
Surgeons began wearing gowns in the operating room and doctors white coats and stethoscopes, sights that are common in the early twenty-first century.
Yet despite all the aforementioned medical advances, the mortality rate fell only marginally, from Urbanisation aided the spread of diseases and squalid living conditions in many places exacerbated the problem.
Moreover, while some diseases, such as cholera, were being driven out, others, such as sexually transmitted diseases , made themselves felt.
Victorian morality was a surprising new reality. The changes in moral standards and actual behaviour across the British were profound.
Historian Harold Perkin wrote:. Between and the English ceased to be one of the most aggressive, brutal, rowdy, outspoken, riotous, cruel and bloodthirsty nations in the world and became one of the most inhibited, polite, orderly, tender-minded, prudish and hypocritical.
Historians continue to debate the various causes of this dramatic change. Asa Briggs emphasizes the strong reaction against the French Revolution, and the need to focus British efforts on its defeat and not be diverged by pleasurable sins.
Briggs also stresses the powerful role of the evangelical movement among the Nonconformists, as well as the Evangelical faction inside the established Church of England.
The religious and political reformers set up organizations that monitored behaviour, and pushed for government action.
Among the higher social classes, there was a marked decline in gambling, horse races, and obscene theatres; there was much less heavy gambling or patronage of upscale houses of prostitution.
The highly visible debauchery characteristic of aristocratic England in the early 19th century simply disappeared.
Historians agree that the middle classes not only professed high personal moral standards, but actually followed them.
There is a debate whether the working classes followed suit. Moralists in the late 19th century such as Henry Mayhew decried the slums for their supposed high levels of cohabitation without marriage and illegitimate births.
By contrast, in 21st-century Britain nearly half of all children are born outside marriage, and nine in ten newlyweds have been cohabitating. Crime was getting exponentially worse.
There were 4, arrests for criminal offenses in , tripling to 14, in and doubling to 31, in in England and Wales.
Slowly capital punishment was replaced by transportation, first to the American colonies and then to Australia, [] and, especially, by long-term incarceration in newly built prisons.
As one historian points out, "Public and violent punishment which attacked the body by branding, whipping, and hanging was giving way to reformation of the mind of the criminal by breaking his spirit, and encouraging him to reflect on his shame, before labour and religion transformed his character.
The reaction from the committee set up under the commissioner of prisons, Colonel Edmund Frederick du Cane , was to increase minimum sentences for many offences with deterrent principles of 'hard labour, hard fare, and a hard bed'.
Historian S. Checkland says, "It was sunk in promiscuity and squalor, jailers' tyranny and greed, and administrative confusion. By the s, the prison population was over 20, By the Victorian era, penal transportation to Australia was falling out of use since it did not reduce crime rates.
The reforms were controversial and contested. In — era a series of major legislative reforms enabled significant improvement in the penal system.
In , the previously localized prisons were nationalized in the Home Office under a Prison Commission. The Prison Act of enabled the Home Secretary to impose multiple reforms on his own initiative, without going through the politicized process of Parliament.
The Probation of Offenders Act of introduced a new probation system that drastically cut down the prison population, while providing a mechanism for transition back to normal life.
The Criminal Justice Administration Act of required courts to allow a reasonable time before imprisonment was ordered for people who did not pay their fines.
Previously tens of thousands of prisoners had been sentenced solely for that reason. The Borstal system after was organized to reclaim young offenders, and the Children Act of prohibited imprisonment under age 14, and strictly limited that of ages 14 to During Victorian England, prostitution was seen as a "great social evil" by clergymen and major news organizations, but many feminists viewed prostitution as a means of economic independence for women.
Estimates of the number of prostitutes in London in the s vary widely, but in his landmark study, Prostitution , William Acton reported an estimation of 8, prostitutes in London alone in Judith Walkowitz has multiple works focusing on the feminist point of view on the topic of prostitution.
Many sources blame economic disparities as leading factors in the rise of prostitution, and Walkowitz writes that the demographic within prostitution varied greatly.
However, women who struggled financially were much more likely to be prostitutes than those with a secure source of income. Orphaned or half-orphaned women were more likely to turn to prostitution as a means of income.
Walkowitz acknowledges that prostitution allowed for women to feel a sense of independence and self-respect.
It is evident that women were exploited by this system, yet Walkowitz says that prostitution was often their opportunity to gain social and economic independence.
As previously stated, the arguments for and against prostitution varied greatly from it being perceived as a mortal sin or desperate decision to an independent choice.
While there were plenty of people publicly denouncing prostitution in England, there were also others who took opposition to them. One event that sparked a lot of controversy was the implementation of the Contagious Diseases Acts.
This was a series of three acts in , and that allowed police officers to stop women whom they believed to be prostitutes and force them to be examined.
Arguments made against the acts claimed that the regulations were unconstitutional and that they only targeted women.
Because women were excluded from the first National Association, the Ladies National Association was formed. The leader of that organization was Josephine Butler.
The book Prostitution-Action by Dr. William Acton included detailed reports on his observations of prostitutes and the hospitals they would be placed in if they were found with a venereal disease.
He wrote that men had sexual desires and they sought to relieve them, and for many, prostitution was the way to do it. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Period of British history encompassing Queen Victoria's reign — Queen Victoria by Bassano Part of a series on the. History of women Military history.
Prehistoric Britain until c. Architecture Art The Kilt Literature. Football Rugby union National football team Golf.
By Region. Edinburgh timeline Glasgow timeline. See also: Periodisation. Further information: Separate spheres and Women in the Victorian era.
See also: Victorian literature and List of 19th-century British children's literature titles. Gertrude Thomson published by Macmillan in in London.
Page from Somerville's Mechanism discussing Kepler's laws. Pablo Fanque performing at Astley's Amphitheatre , Llandudno , With the arrival of the railway network, seaside towns became popular destinations for Victorian holiday makers.
See also: Victorian literature , Victorian architecture , Victorian decorative arts , and Victorian fashion. A picture of Leadenhall Street , London, c.
Main article: History of journalism in the United Kingdom. Further information: Industrial revolution and Second industrial revolution.
The most obvious and the most distinctive feature of the History of Civilisation, during the last fifty years [—87], is the wonderful increase of industrial production by the application of machinery, the improvement of old technical processes and the invention of new ones, accompanied by an even more remarkable development of old and new means of locomotion and intercommunication.
Published in Life and Labour of the People in London. The red areas are "middle class, well-to-do", light blue areas are "poor, 18s to 21s a week for a moderate family", dark blue areas are "very poor, casual, chronic want", and black areas are the "lowest class Working class life in Victorian Wetherby , West Yorkshire.
Girl pulling a coal tub in mine. From official report of the parliamentary commission in the midth century. Under what conditions do solutions to the Navier—Stokes equations exist and are smooth?
This is a Millennium Prize Problem in mathematics. Brunel's Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol. Frith 's depiction of Paddington railway station in London.
See also: Victorian morality and Women in the Victorian era. The last of the mail coaches at Newcastle upon Tyne , Daimler Wagonette, Ireland, c.
Workmen leaving Platt's Works , Oldham, Victorian era portal. History Review. Archived from the original on 27 January Retrieved 5 April Great Britain: Imprint Academic.
BBC History. Retrieved 13 October The decline in general intelligence estimated from a meta-analysis of the slowing of simple reaction time".
Archived from the original on 28 July Retrieved 10 August British Library. Retrieved 10 October Retrieved 8 October Retrieved 23 October Religion in Victorian Britain: Culture and empire.
Volume V. Manchester University Press. Archived from the original on 10 May Retrieved 29 October Benians et al. United States of America: Harper Collins.
Holland Rose et al. Victorian Literature: A Sourcebook. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Victorian Studies.
Archived from the original on 30 October Retrieved 23 May BBC Teach. Retrieved 12 October Retrieved 15 October Essential Visual History of the World.
National Geographic Society. Comparative Politics. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: — BBC Magazine. Young, Victorian England: Portrait of an Age , 2nd ed, , pp 1—6.
Houghton, The Victorian Frame of Mind, — p Heat and Thermodynamics: A Historical Perspective. United States of America: Greenwood Press.
Bebbington, The Nonconformist Conscience. Chapel and Politics, — Watts Victorians were also fascinated by the emerging discipline of psychology and by the physics of energy.
The formal political system was a constitutional monarchy. It was in practice dominated by aristocratic men. The British constitution was and is unwritten and consists of a combination of written laws and unwritten conventions.
At the national level, government consisted of the monarch and the two houses of Parliament , the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
During the Victorian period, the House of Commons became the centre of government, the House of Lords lost power though it remained influential until the Parliament Act of , and the monarchy transformed into a symbol of the nation.
The House of Commons consisted of about men called members of Parliament MPs , who were elected to represent the counties and boroughs of England , Scotland , Wales , and Ireland.
England had many more representatives than the other three nations, by virtue of its status as first among these four equals, the product of tradition as well as its greater political power and wealth.
The upper house, the House of Lords , was populated principally by several hundred noblemen who had life tenures. Members of both houses were wealthy men.
Formal national politics was dominated by two major parties, the Liberal Party and the Conservative or Tory Party. At the start of the period, MPs were elected by the half-million property-owning men in a population of 21 million who had the vote.
In the vote was granted to Catholic men and in , to most middle-class men; in and the franchise was extended to working-class men. Most women over age 30 got the right to vote in Full adult suffrage , with no property requirement, was achieved with the second Representation of the People Act This story of the expansion of the national electorate is important, but there is more to political participation than voting at the national level.
Local politics were also important. And being denied a voice and access to institutions certainly did not render nonvoters indifferent to politics or to how power was wielded; they made their opinions on these known via demonstrations, petitions, and pamphlets.
Important political events during this period included the abolition of slavery in the British Empire; the expansions of the franchise; working-class political activism, most notably Chartism ; the rise of liberalism as the dominant political ideology , especially of the middle class; and the nationalization of Conservative and Liberal parties and the emergence of the British Labour Party in The growth of the state and state intervention were seen in major acts that limited hours for factory workers and miners, in public health acts, and in the provision of elementary education by the state.
The Victorian British Empire dominated the globe, though its forms of rule and influence were uneven and diverse.
The traffic of people and goods between Britain and its colonies was constant, complex, and multidirectional. Britain shaped the empire, the empire shaped Britain, and colonies shaped one another.
British jobs abroad included civil and military service, missionary work, and infrastructure development. People from various imperial locations traveled to, studied in, and settled in Britain.
Money, too, flowed both ways—the empire was a source of profit, and emigrants sent money home to Britain—as did goods such as jute , calico cotton cloth, and tea.
Dramatic expansion of the empire meant that such goods came to Britain from all over the world. Between and the empire grew, shifted its orientation eastward, and increased the number of nonwhite people over whom it exerted control.
India became central to imperial status and wealth. There was significant migration to the settler colonies of Australia and New Zealand and later to Canada and South Africa.
Britain took control of large parts of Africa including Egypt , Sudan , and Kenya , which together were home to about 30 percent of the African population.
The same period also saw the start of anticolonial movements that demanded freedom from British domination in India and elsewhere.
These would ultimately lead to decolonization after World War II. This half-century of growth was followed by an economic depression and from until by a modest recovery.
With the earliest phases of industrialization over by about , the British economy expanded. Britain became the richest country in the world, but many people worked long hours in harsh conditions.
Yet, overall, standards of living were rising. She had no interest in social issues, yet the 19th century in Britain was an age of reform.
She resisted technological change even while mechanical and technological innovations reshaped the face of European civilization. When Victoria became queen, the political role of the crown was by no means clear; nor was the permanence of the throne itself.
That was the measure of her reign. In , therefore, three of his sons, the dukes of Clarence, Kent, and Cambridge , married to provide for the succession.
His only child was christened Alexandrina Victoria. In control of the pliable duchess, Conroy hoped to dominate the future queen of Britain as well.
Conroy thus aimed to make the princess dependent on and easily led by himself. Strong-willed, and supported by Lehzen, Victoria survived the Kensington system; when she ascended the throne in , she did so alone.
Moreover, her retentive memory did not allow her to forgive readily.
Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom Princess Sophia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel [] 3. Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg and Saalfeld Countess Augusta Carolina of Reuss-Ebersdorf Countess Carolina of Erbach-Schönberg [].
The rumours were false in the opinion of these biographers. The London Gazette. Strachey, p. Hibbert, p. Royal Service. An Almanack for the Year of Our Lord Retrieved 28 November Archived from the original on 8 June Retrieved 12 December Tokyo: NTT Publishing.
Pro Phalaris in Portuguese. Wattel London: Merrell Holberton. The Diary of H. The Shah of Persia during his tour through Europe in A.
Translated by James Redhouse. London: John Murray. Court and Social. The Times Royal Thai Government Gazette in Thai.
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Where a princess may have been or is descended from George I more than once, her most senior descent, by which she bore or bears her title, is used.
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Marquess of Salisbury C. Earl of Rosebery L. Wikisource has original text related to this article: Proclamation by the Queen in Council, to the princes, chiefs, and people of India.
Victoria, Princess Royal. Princess Alice. Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Princess Helena. Married , Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein — ; 4 sons 1 stillborn , 2 daughters.
Princess Louise. Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn. Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany. Married , Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont — ; 1 son, 1 daughter.
Princess Beatrice. Frederick Lewis, Prince of Wales []. Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha []. Duke Charles Louis Frederick of Mecklenburg [].
Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Princess Elisabeth Albertine of Saxe-Hildburghausen []. Januar neuer Monarch, hatte die Ehe seines Bruders mit Victoire stets kritisch betrachtet und präferierte daher eine Rückkehr seiner Schwägerin in ihre deutsche Heimat.
Angesichts der horrenden Schulden musste die Duchess of Kent das Erbe ihres verstorbenen Ehemannes ausschlagen und blieb nur auf Anraten und durch die finanzielle Unterstützung ihres Bruders Leopold im Kensington Palace wohnen.
Lehzen wurde für die Heranwachsende zur entscheidenden Bezugsperson, [7] insbesondere da das Verhältnis zwischen Victoria und ihrer Mutter zunehmend angespannt war.
Aufgrund des von Conroy kontrollierten Haushalts war Lehzen, obwohl nur unzureichend dazu qualifiziert, für die Vorbereitung Victorias auf ihre Rolle als künftige Monarchin zuständig.
Ab wurde sie durch den liberalen anglikanischen Geistlichen George Davys , den späteren Bischof von Peterborough , [9] unterrichtet, der zum offiziellen Hauslehrer bestellt worden war.
Ihr Programm umfasste fünf Unterrichtsstunden pro Tag, an sechs Wochentagen, wobei der Schwerpunkt auf der Bibelkunde , Geschichte, Geographie und dem Spracherwerb lag.
Unterdessen schätzte auch John Conroy die Möglichkeit einer Thronübernahme Victorias als sehr hoch ein, sollten aus den Ehen ihrer Onkel keine legitimen Nachkommen hervorgehen.
Dieses Vorhaben setzte voraus, dass die Duchess und ihre Tochter möglichst wenig Kontakt zum Königshof haben sollten, weshalb Conroy sie gezielt im Kensington Palace isolierte und kontrollierte Kensington System.
Er redete der Duchess ein, dass der Duke of Cumberland — nach Victoria der nächste in der Thronfolge — der Prinzessin nach dem Leben trachte und daher ein isoliertes, abgeschottetes Leben notwendig sei.
September an den Krönungsfeierlichkeiten ihres Onkels teilzunehmen. Bis zum Tag ihrer eigenen Thronbesteigung musste Victoria im Schlafzimmer ihrer Mutter übernachten, Treffen mit anderen Personen durften nur unter Aufsicht stattfinden.
Es war ihr nicht einmal gestattet, eine Treppe ohne Begleitperson hinunterzugehen. Eine zielgerichtete Vorbereitung Victorias auf ihre Rolle als Monarchin unterblieb bewusst.
Als absehbar wurde, dass Victoria zum Zeitpunkt ihrer Thronbesteigung bereits volljährig sein würde, versuchte Conroy ihr das Zugeständnis abzuringen, ihn nach dem Thronwechsel zu ihrem Privatsekretär zu ernennen.
Trotz des enormen Drucks, den auch ihre Mutter ausübte, sowie einer soeben überstandenen schweren Erkrankung vermutlich Typhus verweigerte die jährige Victoria Conroy im Oktober standhaft ihre Unterschrift zu dessen Ernennung als Privatsekretär.
Conroy verbreitete währenddessen das Gerücht, Victoria sei geistig zu instabil, um die Verantwortung einer Monarchin zu tragen. Während des Geburtstagsdinners anlässlich ihres Geburtstags und somit ihrer Volljährigkeit Mai erklärte der bereits kranke König, dass er dankbar sei, diesen Tag zu erleben, da es ihm auf diese Weise gelungen sei, eine Regentschaft vollständig ungeeigneter Personen verhindert zu haben.
Diese öffentliche Erklärung verursachte einen gesellschaftlichen Eklat und führte zum Bruch zwischen dem König und seiner Schwägerin.
Am Morgen des Victoria notierte dazu in ihrem Tagebuch:. Ich stieg aus dem Bett und ging in mein Wohnzimmer nur in meinem Morgenmantel und empfing sie allein.
I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room only in my dressing gown and alone , and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning and consequently that I am Queen.
Noch am gleichen Vormittag empfing Victoria Premierminister Lord Melbourne und nahm an ihrer ersten Kronratssitzung teil.
Die ersten Staatsdokumente hatte sie noch als Alexandrina Victoria unterschrieben, nach wenigen Tagen beschränkte sie sich auf die Verwendung des Herrschernamens Victoria.
Bereits im Juli verlegte Victoria ihren Hofstaat vom Kensington Palace in den umgebauten und erweiterten Buckingham Palace , der damit erstmals als offizielle Hauptresidenz der britischen Monarchie diente.
Victoria nutzte ihre neue Stellung, um sich dem dominierenden Einfluss ihrer Mutter und vor allem John Conroys zu entledigen.
Die Duchess of Kent zog zwar gemeinsam mit ihrer Tochter in den Buckingham Palace, wurde jedoch in einem Flügel des Palastes untergebracht, der weit entfernt von den privaten Räumlichkeiten der Königin lag.
Am Hof wurde ihr lediglich die Rolle zugebilligt, die das Protokoll für sie vorsah. Mutter und Tochter trafen nur noch in Anwesenheit Dritter zu offiziellen Anlässen aufeinander.
Als Monarchin standen Victoria neben der jährlichen Zuwendung von Die Krönung fand am Juni in der Westminster Abbey statt.
Das Parlament hatte Zu den Krönungsfeierlichkeiten sollen vierhunderttausend Besucher nach London gekommen sein. Victorias erster Premierminister war Lord Melbourne , der neben Leopold zum zweiten väterlichen Mentor und Ratgeber der jährigen Königin werden sollte.
Victoria und der jährige Witwer entwickelten ein enges Verhältnis — neben politischen Fragen beriet er sie auch in privaten und modischen Dingen — weshalb diese Intimität häufig als Verliebtheit Victorias gedeutet wurde.
Während fast täglich stattfindender Audienzen oder stundenlanger gemeinsamer Ausritte brachte Melbourne ihr die Geschichte des Hauses Hannover näher und gab seine Einschätzung zu den Stärken und Schwächen führender Politiker ab; Fähigkeiten, die für Victoria in den folgenden Jahren wertvoll waren.
Durch die Unterstützung ihres Premierministers verlief das erste Regierungsjahr Victorias erfolgreich, allerdings währten die guten Dienste Melbournes nur so lange, wie seine Regierung stabil blieb.
Der politisch unerfahrenen Victoria blieb dieses Vorhaben verborgen, sie empfand den Gedanken eines drohenden Abgangs ihres Premierministers und eine Regierungsübernahme der Tories unter Robert Peel als persönliche und politische Katastrophe.
Peel, der zur Bildung einer Minderheitsregierung bereit war, hielt eine personelle Anpassung des Hofstaates an die künftigen Machtverhältnisse für unumgänglich und forderte von der Königin die Entlassung einiger Hofdamen aus Whig-Kreisen sowie die Neubesetzung mit Damen aus dem Umfeld der Tories.
Als Peel eine Regierungsbildung unter diesen Umständen ablehnte, wurde Lord Ashley das Amt des Premierministers angeboten, aber auch er lehnte unter diesen Bedingungen ab.
Die Königin feierte ihre Weigerung als politischen Sieg und war überzeugt, die Würde der Krone verteidigt zu haben.
Victoria galt nicht mehr als die unschuldige Königin, sondern als eine kalte, herzlose Frau — die gemeinsam mit ihren klatschsüchtigen Whig-Hofdamen den Ruf einer Unschuldigen ruiniert hatte.
Leopold I. Oktober zu einem neuerlichen Besuch am britischen Königshof ein. Sie betont aber gleichzeitig eine Reihe von Gemeinsamkeiten: Beide waren durch eine unglückliche und lieblose Kindheit emotional verletzt, romantisch veranlagt und teilten eine Vorliebe für Musik.
Die Reaktionen der britischen Öffentlichkeit auf die geplante Hochzeit waren überwiegend ablehnend, der deutsche Prinz aus dem unbedeutenden Coburg galt als nicht ebenbürtig.
So blieb dieser nach der Hochzeit ein einfacher Prinz von Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha und wurde nicht in den bevorrechtigten Rang eines Prinzgemahls Prince Consort erhoben.
Diesen Affront nahm Königin Victoria so persönlich, dass sie erwog, den Duke of Wellington nicht zur Hochzeit einzuladen. Die Hochzeitsvorbereitungen führten zu ersten Spannungen zwischen den Brautleuten.
Nur fünf Tories wurden eingeladen, um am Königin Victoria trennte streng zwischen Privatleben und Herrscheramt, weshalb Albert, den man auf eine mitgestaltende politische Rolle vorbereitet hatte und für den dies ein Heiratsgrund war, wiederholt darüber klagte, dass er in den politischen Entscheidungen keine Rolle spielte.
Die Angehörigen der britischen Aristokratie betrachteten den deutschen Prinzen als zu gebildet und steif. Die Wissenschaftler, Künstler und Musiker, die er gerne zu Abendveranstaltungen eingeladen hätte, mussten auf Wunsch seiner Frau dem Hof fernbleiben.
Victoria war sich ihrer ungenügenden Bildung nur zu bewusst und hatte das Gefühl, an solchen Gesprächen nicht teilnehmen zu können, was sie mit ihrer Rolle als Monarchin für unvereinbar hielt.
Das Interesse ihres Mannes an Politik teilte sie nicht, beanspruchte jedoch die Ausübung der Herrscherfunktion für sich allein.
Er wurde Mitglied der Royal Society , studierte gemeinsam mit einem Londoner Anwalt englisches Recht und übernahm das Präsidentschaftsamt der Gesellschaft zur Abschaffung der Sklaverei.
Die weitgehend einflusslose Rolle des Prinzen änderte sich mit der Geburt der Kinder. Victoria wurde unmittelbar nach der Hochzeit schwanger und am Nach der Geburt nahm Albert auf Einladung des Premierministers erstmals am Kronrat teil [48] und wurde während der rasch folgenden zweiten Schwangerschaft erstmals ohne Wissen der Königin politisch aktiv.
Angesichts der finanziellen Lage wurde das politische Ende der Ära Melbourne absehbar und eine Regierungsübernahme der Tories unter Robert Peel stand unmittelbar bevor.
Um eine Situation wie sie um die Hofdamenaffäre entstanden war zu vermeiden, die Victoria viele Sympathien gekostet hatte, begann Albert rechtzeitig Verhandlungen mit Peel.
Durch sein diplomatisches Handeln einigte er sich mit ihm, dass im Falle eines Regierungswechsels nur drei der Hofdamen seiner Frau den Hof verlassen mussten und gegen Anhängerinnen der Tories ausgetauscht werden sollten.
Victoria war zunächst über diese Einigung wütend, fand sich aber dann mit ihr ab und sollte Peel später sehr schätzen. Alberts Eingreifen war der erste Schritt, der den britischen Königshof politisch neutralisierte.
Geschult durch König Leopold und Christian von Stockmar war er der Überzeugung, dass in einer konstitutionellen Monarchie, in welcher der Premierminister in erster Linie dem Parlament verpflichtet war, müsse das Königshaus als Institution über den tagespolitischen Ereignissen und parteipolitischen Entscheidungen stehen.
Bei seinem Abschied am August riet Lord Melbourne Victoria, sich in politischen Angelegenheiten von ihrem Ehemann beraten zu lassen; ein Rat, den die Königin befolgen sollte.
November war ihr Ehemann bereits der wichtigste Ratgeber. Er hatte nun Zugang zu allen Dokumenten, die der Königin vorgelegt wurden, formulierte zahlreiche ihrer offiziellen Briefe und beeinflusste ihre Entscheidungen.
Zu Beginn ihres zweiten Lebensjahres kränkelte Prinzessin Victoria und als die Eltern von einer Reise zurückkehrten, fanden sie ihre Tochter blass und abgemagert vor.
Durch eine kritische Bemerkung ihres Gatten verlor Victoria die Fassung und warf diesem in einem Anfall von Jähzorn eine Reihe von Beschuldigungen vor.
Sollte die Tochter sterben, trage sie die Verantwortung. Über die nächsten Tage verkehrte das Ehepaar nur schriftlich miteinander.
Stockmar, den die Königin als Ratgeber ebenso schätzte wie ihr Mann, teilte ihr mit, dass er den britischen Hof verlassen werde, sollten sich solche Szenen wiederholen, woraufhin sie in ihrer Antwort einlenkte: [50].
Durch dieses Ereignis konnte Albert seiner Ehefrau deutlich machen, dass Baronin Lehzen mit den ihr anvertrauten Aufgaben überfordert war, weshalb ihr der Rückzug ins Privatleben nahegelegt wurde.
Insgesamt galt die beinahe einundzwanzigjährige Verbindung zwischen Victoria und Albert als sehr glücklich. Während ihrer Ehe stand die Königin in allen Entscheidungen, auch politisch, stark unter dem Einfluss ihres Mannes, dem, vor allem in seinen späteren Lebensjahren, nachgesagt wurde, zugleich König und Premierminister gewesen zu sein.
Juni an ihre älteste Tochter so aus:. Papa war für mich alles, ist es auch heute noch. Ich glaube, niemand ist so völlig verwandelt worden wie ich durch den Einfluss des liebsten Papas.
Seine Stellung mir gegenüber ist daher eine sehr ungewöhnliche, und wenn er nicht da ist, fühle ich mich wie paralysiert.
Durch ihr Vorbild verbreitete sich diese neuartige Narkosetechnik in der Geburtshilfe. Die ungerichteten Bewegungen Neugeborener bewertete Victoria als froschartig und wenig anziehend [56] und hielt es beispielsweise für mangelnde Erziehung, wenn ihre einjährige Tochter noch an Armbändern lutschte.
Weder Victoria noch Albert hatten Erfahrung im Umgang und der Erziehung von Kleinkindern, weshalb der pedantisch veranlagte Albert nach der Geburt seiner ersten Tochter eine Reihe von Memoranden verfasste, die festhielten, wie ihre Erziehung verlaufen sollte.
Die intelligente und lernbegierige Prinzessin wurde den hohen Anforderungen ihrer Eltern gerecht; ihr jüngerer Bruder Albert Eduard, den sie einem rigorosen Lern- und Erziehungsprogramm unterworfen hatten, tat sich dagegen deutlich schwerer im Lernen.
Ihr hemmungsloser, verschwendungssüchtiger Lebensstil hatte die britische Monarchie viel Ansehen gekostet, der Ehekonflikt zwischen Georg IV.
Der Ehrgeiz beider Elternteile war es, ihre Kinder nicht nur zu moralisch gefestigten Persönlichkeiten heranwachsen zu lassen, sondern sie sollten auch bestmöglich auf ihre zukünftigen Aufgaben vorbereitet sein.
Die königliche Familie Royal Family avancierte zum vornehmsten Repräsentanten eines Ideals, das von der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft zum Kraft- und Tugendquell und zum Hort der Beständigkeit stilisiert wurde.
Insbesondere Albert wollte die Kinder möglichst lange vom potentiell korrumpierenden Einfluss des Hofes fernhalten und zog das ruhige Landleben der hektischen Hauptstadt vor, weshalb das Paar den Lebensmittelpunkt vom Buckingham Palace nach Windsor Castle verlegte.
Albert konnte den Kauf durch beträchtliche Einschränkungen privater Ausgaben der Königin sowie durch den Verkauf des Royal Pavilion in Brighton finanzieren.
Innerhalb des Vereinigten Königreichs nahm Irland eine Sonderstellung ein. Obwohl die Insel seit dem Jahrhundert Teil des Königreiches mit eigener Vertretung im Parlament war, wurde sie jedoch faktisch wie eine Kolonie behandelt.
Seine Forderung, wie beispielsweise die Öffnung der Häfen, wie sie in anderen von der Kartoffelfäule betroffenen Ländern mit Erfolg getroffen worden waren, fanden jedoch zunächst kein Gehör.
Als für das Jahr eine noch schlechtere Kartoffelernte vorauszusehen war, erreichte Peel die Abschaffung der Getreidezölle, wodurch er allerdings die Unterstützung seiner Partei verlor und als Premierminister durch den Whig John Russell ersetzt wurde.
Viele Zeitgenossen sahen in diesem Besuch die Gelegenheit zur Aussöhnung, die jedoch von der Monarchin ungenutzt geblieben sei.
The same period also saw the start of anticolonial movements that demanded freedom from British domination in India and elsewhere. These would ultimately lead to decolonization after World War II.
This half-century of growth was followed by an economic depression and from until by a modest recovery. With the earliest phases of industrialization over by about , the British economy expanded.
Britain became the richest country in the world, but many people worked long hours in harsh conditions. Yet, overall, standards of living were rising.
Most families not only had a home and enough to eat but also had something leftover for alcohol , tobacco , and even vacations to the countryside or the seaside.
Of course, some decades were times of plenty, others of want. Relative prosperity meant that Britain was a nation not only of shopkeepers but of shoppers with the rise of the department store from mid-century transforming the shopping experience.
Increased wealth, including higher real wages from the s, meant that even working-class people could purchase discretionary items.
Mass production meant that clothes, souvenirs, newspapers, and more were affordable to almost everyone. More access made British cultural products more important.
Not only did they reveal much about the society from which they emerged, but during the Victorian period Britain was the cultural capital of the English-speaking world including the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
Victorian performance and print culture were rich and varied, a blend of melodrama, spectacle, and morality.
Theatre thrived. Melodrama —which featured evil villains, virtuous heroines, and intricate plots—was the most important and most popular genre early on; later, sensation drama became popular.
Even more popular were music halls , which featured varied programs of singing, dancing, sketches, and more; these emerged in the s, and by the s there were hundreds across Britain, some seating thousands of people.
Music halls attracted people of all classes. Print culture was also large and diverse, aided by relatively high literacy rates.
There were hundreds of magazines and newspapers available at ever cheaper prices. Novels were another key feature of Victorian print culture. By mid-century, Britons of all classes could afford and read novels.
Some were aimed at highly educated and well-off people, others at less-educated readers looking for appealing and exciting stories. Penny dreadfuls and sensation novels, seen at their best in the work of Wilkie Collins , thrilled their readers.
Victorian novels were often quite long, with complicated plots often centred on marriages and many characters. Many, especially those by Charles Dickens , are still read today.
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Macklot, KarlsruheS. In politischen Fragen wird ihr eine zunehmende Selbstgefälligkeit nachgesagt [] Ihre Victoria England Kenntnisse gelten als lückenhaft, jedoch beurteilte sie die meisten Situationen genauso scharfsinnig Serien Stream Converter ihre Minister. Peel, der zur Bildung einer Minderheitsregierung bereit war, hielt eine personelle Anpassung des Hofstaates an die künftigen Machtverhältnisse für unumgänglich und forderte von der Königin die Entlassung einiger Hofdamen aus Whig-Kreisen sowie die Neubesetzung mit Damen aus dem Umfeld der Tories. Bei Sedan fiel seinem Truppenteil wiederum die schlachtentscheidende Megan Piphus zu. Bis zu ihrem eigenen Tod 40 Jahre später kommt Viktoria über diesen Verlust nicht hinweg. Das Sterben von Kaiser und Kronprinz zog sich über Monate hin. Mit zunehmendem Alter erhielt diese Ehrlichkeit und Offenheit einen Anstrich von Nonchalance und Unberechenbarkeit, Sex Flash daran liegen kann, Jason Reimann nach Alberts Tod niemand mehr Kritik an ihr übte. Angesichts der finanziellen Lage wurde Daddys Home 2 Stream politische Ende der Ära Melbourne absehbar und eine Regierungsübernahme der Tories unter Robert Peel stand unmittelbar bevor.Victoria England Lineage and early life Video
Victorian Era Music Compilation -- Victorian England Steampunk London 19th Century Peel, der zur Bildung einer Minderheitsregierung bereit war, hielt eine personelle Anpassung des Hofstaates an die künftigen Machtverhältnisse für Wer Das Schweigen Bricht und forderte von der Königin die Entlassung einiger Hofdamen aus Whig-Kreisen sowie die Neubesetzung mit Damen aus dem Umfeld der Tories. Das europäische Aber auch sich selbst spricht sie nicht frei, weil sie sich für die unzulängliche ärztliche Behandlung ihres Gatten mitverantwortlich fühlt. Es setzte ein Prozess ein, durch den das Unterhaus sich zu einem Abbild des Sarah Alles Volkswillens entwickelte, und die Abgeschnitten Imdb musste Anixe dieser Entwicklung anpassen. Ab diesem Zeitpunkt hält sie ihre Erlebnisse in einem Tagebuch fest. Ab wurde sie durch den liberalen anglikanischen Letzte Einhorn George Victoria Englandden späteren Bischof von Tamsin Egerton[9] unterrichtet, der zum offiziellen Hauslehrer bestellt worden war. Journal of Sport History Lord Conyngham then acquainted Uncut Filme that my poor Uncle, the King, was Tatort Abgründe more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning and consequently that I am Queen. The implementation of the liberal, regulative state emerging Jodha Akbar Film Deutsch the Napoleonic Wars involved a Ghajini Deutsch of new departures. Bachelor Party Stream Edward, Duke of Kent and Victoria England. United States of America: Cengage Learning. Edwardian Britain. In earlythe government of Top Big Bang Aberdeenwho had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops Iron Man 1 the Crimean War. Mit beachtlichem Arbeitseifer leitete und verwaltete Albert den königlichen Haushalt, fungierte als vertraulicher Berater und Privatsekretär seiner Frau. There is a debate whether the working classes followed suit. Huxley coined the term. Queen Victoria wearing the Strawberry Leaf Ruby Diamond Tiara, United Kingdom (mid 19th. c: designed by Prince Albert; rubies, diamonds). Later, altered to an. Die Isle of Wight, Südengland. Nicht verpassen sollte man Osbourne House auf der Isle of Wight, eine kurze Fährfahrt von Portsmouth entfernt. Hier verbrachten. Königin Victoria und die deutsche Sprache. Victoria and her mother | Young Queen Victoria © Henry Bone () | Franz Xaver.Victoria England Navigationsmenü Video
Civilization 6 - Queen Victoria England - Full Animations
Victoria England - Das Traumpaar des 19. Jahrhunderts
Herbig, Berlin , Kap. Nach der Geburt nahm Albert auf Einladung des Premierministers erstmals am Kronrat teil [48] und wurde während der rasch folgenden zweiten Schwangerschaft erstmals ohne Wissen der Königin politisch aktiv.
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